Partial Democracy and Governance Assessment in Egypt

Since the revolution that took place in 1954, Egypt has had three presidents namely: Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak. Hosni Mubarak became the president in Egypt after president Sadat was eliminated by the leaders of the Islamic Jihad group, who viciously differed with his policies.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Partial Democracy and Governance Assessment in Egypt specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Before becoming the president in Egypt, Mubarak had served in the military and even as a minister of defense in the country. For over thirty years now, the leading party in Egypt has been the National Democratic Party. Even if the state constitution depicts Egypt as a democratic country, in the real sense it is not. The regime is usually authoritarian, given authority by elections. On 25th January 2011, mass demonstrations against Mubarak and his government exploded in Cairo and other towns in Egypt. A week later, Mubarak declared that he would not vie during the presidential election scheduled in September. He also guaranteed constitutional changes. However, this did not persuade the majority of demonstrators as they wanted Mubarak to leave the office instantly. The protests went on and on 2 February, brutal clashes happened amid pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak demonstrators. Later on, Mubarak left the seat and he is currently awaiting trials for the crimes sued against him. In this paper, we shall conduct the first step of a partial democracy and governance assessment (DG) for Egypt during Mubarak’s regime. We shall examine consensus, rule of law, competition, inclusion and good governance. We shall then make a conclusion that summarizes the key points that will be discussed. Consensus A sophisticated consensus on the basic values, standards and rules of how a community will be ruled is the foundation on which protracted democracies are constructed. The course of institut ional transformation supported by Egypt’s most powerful businessmen shares significant aspects of harmony with the reforms recommended by followers of Islamic constitutionalism and liberal constitutionalism (Alaa Al-Din Arafat, 2009).Advertising Looking for report on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These groups support the formation of a more liberal nation with valuable constraints on its authority; a lucid and unprejudiced lawful code; and fortification of political and civil privileges. Nevertheless, there is no analogous consensus on the significance of expanding public involvement in politics. This verity implies that democracy and liberalism have become de- connected in the Egyptian instance. Liberalism is expected to progress gradually in prospect, while democracy is expected to progress slowly and irregularly. This course may finally result to democracy in prospect, especially if liberalism improves the private segment’s autonomy from the state and forms a more independent and politically vigorous middle class (Alaa Al-Din Arafat, 2009). Conversely, constitutional changes in 2007 were exclusively disappointing to the democrats. They felt that Egypt should stay as a hybrid regime with legal and institutional restrictions on the managerial authority. Rule of Law The constitution in Egypt grants for a well-built executive. Power is vested in a designated president who in turn appoints the prime minister, the vice presidents, and ministers. The judiciary in Egypt emphasizes that the state is supposed to respect the law and be controlled by it. In this light, the law is essential in ensuring that the government observes impartiality in its affairs with the public. For a long time, judges in Egypt have powerfully defended their autonomy. The judiciary has formed an extensive body of jurisprudence that usually seeks to fortify the independence and veracity of the courts. This b ody also seeks autonomy in control of special courts including: the Court of Values, the Emergency State Security Courts and the Socialist Public Prosecutor Courts. These bodies were formed largely to evade the ordinary judiciary and allow the government to prosecute its rivals before specially selected judges using slick methods that augment the possibility of conviction. Furthermore, judicial rulings in Egypt include a huge number of cases that guard fundamental rights of due procedures. The Court of Cassation guards’ resident’s right to lawful representation if prosecuted, the right to timely and just trial, freedom from illegal search and arrest and freedom from suffering. As ruled by the executive courts, no person is supposed to stay in an official record of suspects for an indefinite period.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Partial Democracy and Governance Assessment in Egypt specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At the same time, no person can be regularly subjected to examination or detention without the appearance of exact evidence validating suspicion of crime. This court also asserted that it has the power to decide on whether an individual’s name should appear in the inventory of those deemed risky to security. The Supreme Court Council (SCC) has given related rulings, holding that investigations may just happen with a court order, and that residents may not be incarcerated or deprived of professional chances on the grounds of sheer suspicion. SCC verdicts have also avowed the presumption of virtuousness in addition to a resident’s right to trial and gentle treatment while under custody. The degree to which these rulings guard entity rights forms one of the most tolerant aspects of Egyptian jurisprudence. Nevertheless, these rulings boast significant distinctions from liberalism. The liberal notion is based in the principle that entity rights lie at the center of political order (Rutherford, 2010). States are formed to guard these rights inside a structure of ordered liberty. The state may not breach them except for a case whereby there is a persuasive public requirement to do so. Egyptian judiciary lacks paramount stress on entity rights. In several rulings, the judges fail to declare the doctrine of basic rights that leads the law and the nation. Individual rights are usually rationalized in terms of their role in safeguarding the safety of the society. Competition Whereas consensus makes a foundation of general perception, shared values and the established order that underpins the organizations and structures via which democracy can be experienced, competition is the system that persons living in democracies use to create and challenge ideas, advocate diverse interests, arbitrate diversities, prioritize predilections, create policies, and balance authority. Competition happens in all sectors and at all heights of society, and wi thin constructions that are both formal and informal.Advertising Looking for report on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Competitive parliamentary elections in Egypt characterize the greatest reaction from an authoritarian government that is surrounded by numerous political issues (Brownlee, 2007). A principal cause for this is that elections alleviate imperative shapes of distributional arguments, especially over access to loots within Egypt’s big class of elites who cover the major source of support for the government (Blaydes, 2008). However, the moderation of distributional argument is not the sole functional advantage of a competitive electoral promotion in Egypt. Elections cause dominance via official channels, offer vital information for the government, provide a central point for the relocation of wealth to state workers and the public and improve the international status of the autocrat while intensifying his political grip (Blaydes, 2010). This does not mean that holding elections eliminates the entire risk of an authoritarian headship; there subsists a trade-off amid the intra-elite serenity and other practical benefits as well as costs associated with the manner that elections intensify state-society affairs, chiefly relations amid the country and followers of its prime opponent, the Muslim Brotherhood. Inclusion Egypt boasts an authoritarian regime. The multiplicity of trade unions is never permitted, and the formation of charitable unions and political parties is usually restricted (Soliman, Daniel, 2011). However, there are 13 authorized political parties although the New Democratic Party (NDP) has remained to be the leading party since its inception in 1978. The Muslim Brotherhood has also made significant efforts into the political institution, but so far it has not succeeded the NDP. In fact, the Muslim Brotherhood is legitimately prohibited by the Egyptian law since it has a religious basis. Furthermore, state bodies are usually subjected to the president, who has absolute authority. In reaction to the growing fame of Islamist unions, the Mubarak gover nment has faltered on its strategies towards the Islamists (Smith, 2008). The regime has opted to pursue a policy of greater litheness towards the inclusion of faith in cultural existence. Even though there has been some discourse with the Muslim Brotherhood and other Islamic groups for a long time the height of contact amid the Muslim unions and the regime varies with the political atmosphere (Smith, 2008). Nevertheless, the regime’s reaction to the Islamists has been met with lots of criticism. Good Governance Some scholars consider Mubarak’s regime to be more flexible than the regime that prevailed during the reign of his predecessors (Africa Institute of South Africa, 2008). Mubarak’s political pluralism has expanded the nation’s democracy. At present, the media enjoys the freedom of expression, the judiciary works autonomously and many political parties have been born. Besides, the civil society has been revived. When Mubarak came into power, the cou ntry was in huge debts. As a consequence, he initiated reform programs which emerged successful. Mubarak’s regime was able to control inflation and reduce the debts. Mubarak was also able to preserve peace with Israel and maintain close relations with America. He retained Egypt’s loyalty to the Camp David peace practice and re-affirmed the pose of Egypt as the leader of Arabs. During Mubarak’s reign, Egypt was re-positioned to the Arab League. At the same time, Egypt held a moderating task in the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (UN). Egyptian political bodies have developed over time to contain changing situations and realities. Egyptian societies have also demonstrated a level of path dependence, implying that there is a sustained prejudice in political bodies (Bowker, 2010). In fact, the desire to shun costs allied with undoing an already established body, such as elections, may have essentially motivated the ruling regime to invent approaches that have made the already established bodies to work for solidity (Douglas, 2006). Given the multicolored institutional alternatives allied with the electoral process, Mubarak’s regime appears to have experienced little as an outcome of this institutional adhesiveness (Bowker, 2010). The evolving character of these bodies implies that political change has occurred within the historical restraints of Egypt’s institutional bequest. At present, the Egyptian government operates on approximately half of the national revenue as compared to the time when Mubarak initially came to authority. Income from the Suez Canal, gas and oil profits and foreign support are never adequate to nourish the state assets and boost low tax incomes. Financial crisis is a problem for any authoritarian government, as its solidity relies not merely on political subjugation, but also on acquiring the loyalty of parts of the residents. For a long time, the Mubarak government made efforts to stop the dec reasing rentier revenues and restructure civic expenditures in an effort to lessen the political overheads of the fiscal decline. Finally, the account of Mubarak’s regime is purely one of a demonstrated capacity to delay, a restricted success at forestalling the unavoidable political results of financial crisis and a shifting political economy. In conclusion, this DG assessment highlights several facts about Egypt. First, the multiplicity of trade unions is never permitted, and the formation of charitable unions and political parties is usually restricted. The course of institutional transformation supported by Egypt’s most powerful businessmen shares significant aspects of harmony with the reforms recommended by followers of Islamic constitutionalism and liberal constitutionalism. These groups support the formation of a more liberal nation with valuable constraints on its authority; a lucid and unprejudiced lawful code; and fortification of political and civil privile ges. Nevertheless, there is no analogous consensus on the significance of expanding public involvement in politics. Second, the judiciary in Egypt emphasizes that the state is supposed to respect the law and be controlled by it. Judicial rulings in Egypt include a huge number of cases that guard fundamental rights of due procedures. The Court of Cassation guards’ resident’s right to lawful representation if prosecuted, the right to timely and just trial, freedom from illegal search and arrest and freedom from suffering. There exist special courts in Egypt including: the Court of Values, the Emergency State Security Courts and the Socialist Public Prosecutor Courts. Third, competitive parliamentary elections in Egypt characterize the greatest reaction from an authoritarian government that is surrounded by numerous political issues. A principal cause for this is that elections alleviate imperative shapes of distributional arguments, especially over access to loots within Egypt’s big class of elites who cover the major source of support for the government. However, the moderation of distributional argument is not the sole functional advantage of a competitive electoral promotion in Egypt. Fourth, the regime has opted to pursue a policy of greater litheness towards the inclusion of faith in cultural existence. Mubarak’s political pluralism has also expanded the nation’s democracy. At present, the media enjoys the freedom of expression, the judiciary works autonomously and many political parties have been born. Besides, the civil society has been revived. Finally, the evolving character of political bodies in Egypt implies that political change has occurred within the historical restraints of Egypt’s institutional bequest. Egyptian societies have also demonstrated a level of path dependence, implying that there is a sustained prejudice in political bodies. Given the multicolored institutional alternatives allied with the el ectoral process, Mubarak’s regime appears to have experienced little as an outcome of this institutional adhesiveness. References Africa Institute of South Africa (2008). Good governance-African political elites: the search for democracy and good governance. Johannesburg: African Books Collective Alaa Al-Din Arafat, A. (2009). The Mubarak leadership and future of democracy in Egypt. London: Palgrave Macmillan Blaydes, L.A. (2008). Competition without democracy: elections and distributive politics in Mubarak’s Egypt. Los Angeles: University of California Blaydes, L.A. (2010). Elections and distributive politics in Mubarak’s Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bowker, R. (2010). Egypt and the politics of change in the Arab Middle East. London: Edward Elgar Publishing Brownlee, A. (2007). Authoritarianism in an age of democratization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Douglas, R. (2006). Change and politics in Egypt. London: Sage Rutherford, B. (2010). Egypt after Mubarak: liberalism, Islam, and democracy in the Arab world. New York: Oxford University Press Smith, K.E. (2008). Inclusion-European Union foreign policy in a changing world. 2nd Ed. New York: Polity Soliman, S. Daniel, P. (2011). The autumn of dictatorship: fiscal crisis and political change in Egypt under Mubarak. Stanford: Stanford University Press This report on Partial Democracy and Governance Assessment in Egypt was written and submitted by user Jed1d1ah to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Go Ask Alice1 essays

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The Christians Doctrine Of Trinity

The Christians Doctrine Of Trinity During my a yearlong stay in Australia in 2009, once I happened to visit St Marys Cathedral in Sydney and witness Sunday Services, a formalized way of communal worship by the followers of worlds largest and celebrated religion the Christianity. The services involved singing of hymns, reading of verses from the Holy Scriptures and possibly a Psalm, a sermon by the Archbishop and then Baptisms of a few young believers. The services were followed by a very informative guided tour of the Cathedral giving a quick insight into the history of the Christianity in Australia in general and of St Marys Cathedral in particular. Impressed by the enriched history of the Christianity and captivated by this very orderly and benevolent way of offering prayers by the Christians Catholic community, I aimed to study the Christian religion in detail and explore its various aspects. However, the most vital factor which led me to write this paper is my eagerness to understand and analyze a shadowy and controversial yet vital Christians Doctrine of the Trinity, as during my visit to the Cathedral I was amazed to view the sermon and hymns glorifying the God, the Christ and the Holy Spirit while putting them all at equal to one and another, despite of the fact that the Christianity, besides Judaism and Islam, is a Monotheistic religion which believes in only one God. In pursuance to my eagerness to understand and research on the subject matter, I went through a number of books and research articles about Christianity in general and the Doctrine of Trinity in particular written by numerous writers professing differing school of thoughts. Having gone through all these writings, my understanding about the Doctrine of Trinity remained as bewildering as ever before. However, being a student of MPhil in Socio-Cultural Anthropology once I tried to analyse the subject matter in anthropological perspective, my understanding of the issue became much explicit and I could make sense of many underlying facts about this mysterious faith of Christianity. While doing my research work and writing this paper I have used the secondary data. However, I fully acknowledge and thank for the continual assistance provided by my instructors, my class fellows, and the Bahria Universitys library staff during my drawn-out research work. Introduction The most debated mystery of the Christian faith has been the Doctrine of Trinity, which defines God as three divine persons God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. These three persons, though distinct from one another, co-exist in unity and are co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial. Most Christians often say they believe in the Trinity, yet they differ in their understanding of it. There are numerous Trinitarian conceptions that exist today, but generally the Trinity belief is that in the Godhead there are three persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; yet, together they are but one God. Supporters of the Trinity say that it is founded not only on religious tradition but also on teachings of the Bible. The Greek Orthodox Church calls the Trinity the fundamental doctrine of Christianity, even saying Christians are those who accept Christ as God. In the book Our Orthodox Christian Faith the same Church declares: God is triune . . . . The Father is totally God. The Son is totally God. The Holy Spirit is totally God. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church describes the Trinity as the central dogma of Christian theology. On the other hand, the critics of the Doctrine of Trinity say it false and man self-fabricated, as the God Almighty stands alone as a separate, eternal, and all-powerful being. They argue that Jesus in his prehumen existence was, like the angels, a separate spirit person created by God, and for this reason he must have had a beginning, i.e. there was a time when he was not. They instill that Jesus has never been Almighty Gods equal in any sense; he has always been subject to God and still is. They also believe that the Holy Ghost is not a person but Gods spirit, his active force. The opponents of the doctrine claim that it is not a Bible teaching, one history source even declaring the origin of the Trinity as entirely pagan. Since the inception of doctrine of Trinity into Christianity about fifteen centuries ago, most Christians who believe in this doctrine have never actually checked it out to see why they believe it. They just assume that it must be true because it is what most churches teach. In addition, many people think it is wrong to question doctrines like this. But the reality is that many Christians who accept the doctrine of Trinity, remain confused and even those who have a deeper understanding of it admit that they do not understand it completely and cant defend it when challenged. Once stuck, their eventual response is that the Trinity is hard to understand because God is beyond human thinking. There is another disturbing aspect of this debate that many Christians believe in different Trinity doctrines or at least they understand this doctrine in different ways. Some believe that God is one being that shows himself in three different ways, like water shows itself in the form of ice, steam, and liquid. Others believe that the Trinity is made up of three distinct personalities and these three are in complete unity in love and purpose. Notwithstanding the above, the aim of this paper is to explore and comprehend the Christians Doctrine of Trinity from different aspects including the anthropological perspective. In doing so, I will first briefly glance at Christianity as a religion while looking into its origin, brief history and the basic beliefs. Then I will deliberate upon one of Christianitys most controversial yet pivotal teachings, i.e. the Doctrine of Trinity. In this part of the paper, I will address some of vital questions concerning the Doctrine of Trinity and will try to find their answers from the available texts and writings. Thereupon, I will analyse the said doctrine from anthropological perspective while applying a French social theorist Michael Foucaults renowned theory on knowledge is power. I will also highlight perspectives about religion by a few other great philosophers like Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud. At the end I will draw my conclusion. Christianity at a Glance Its Origin, Brief History and Basic Beliefs The Christianity is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of a Jewish preacher named Yeshua, commonly known as Jesus Christ, who lived in Nazareth, a small town in Galilee of Roman province Judaea, about 2,000 years ago. Yeshua was born to a Virgin Mary probably between 7 and 4 BCE, and was executed in Jerusalem in the spring of the year 30 CE on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. After Yeshuas death, his apostles formed the Jewish Christian movement, concentrated in Jerusalem. One of Yeshuas Apostles Simon Peter and then James, who is viewed as either Yeshuas brother or cousin, headed the group. They regarded themselves as a reform movement within Judaism; as they continued to sacrifice at the temple, circumcise their male children, and follow Jewish kosher food laws etc. Around 34 CE, Saul of Tarsus, originally a persecutor of the Jewish Christians, while travelling on the road from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to apprehend the Jewish Christians had a vision of the resurrected Jesus in a great light. He converted to Christianity and adopted the new name of Paul the Apostle, and became the greatest theologian of the early Christian movement. His writings, along with those of the author(s) of the Gospel of John, provided much of the theological foundation for what has been called Pauline Christianity, a movement that spread throughout the northern and eastern Mediterranean basin. Paul Christianity, which started around 37 CE, was directed primarily to Gentiles, i.e. non-Jews. The third contesting belief system was Gnostic Christianity, which taught that Jesus was a spirit sent by God to impart knowledge to humans so that they could escape the miseries of life on earth. In addition to Jewish, Pauline and Gnostic Christianity, there were many other versions of Christianity being taught. However, after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman Army in 70 CE, the Jewish Christian movement was largely dissipated which left Pauline and Gnostic Christianity as the dominant Christian groups. Gentiles within the movement took over control of the former movement. As compare to other beliefs systems, the Pauline Christianity grew quickly in size and influence over a few decades, and by 313 CE Roman Empire recognized it was a valid religion and by 387 CE it became the official religion of the Roman Empire, replacing other forms of religions earlier being practiced under the Roman rule. Gnostic Christianity was severely persecuted, both by the Roman Empire and the Pauline Christian churches. During the Middle-Ages, most of the Europe was Christianized. Following the Age of Discovery, through colonization and missionary work, Christianity spread to the American subcontinents, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world. As of today, the Christianity is the most popular and largest religion in the world with around 2.34 billion followers, constituting 33.35 % of worlds total population and growing further at the rate of 1.38 % per annum. It is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas and Southern Africa, and, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of several countries. During the 7th century CE, power in the Christian world became polarized in Constantinople and Rome. These two Christian centers gradually grew apart in belief and practice. In 1054 CE, a split was formalized between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Later on, in the 16th century various schisms including the Protestant Reformation led to a fragmentation within the Western Church. The Protestant movement has since splintered into what is now many groups of denominations, and tens of thousands of individual denominations. Consequently, as of today there are three main groups practicing Christianity worldwide; the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Protestant Churches. There are other Christian groups as well that do not fit neatly into any one of these primary categories, like Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian Church. Of all the Christians in the world today about half are Roman Catholic. Though, there are many differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible on which the Christianity is based, Christians share a set of beliefs that they hold as essential to their faith. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). The title Messiah comes from the Hebrew word mÄ Ãƒâ€¦Ã‚ ¡ià ¡Ãƒâ€ž meaning anointed one. Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as saviour of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The foundation of Christian theology is expressed in the early Christian ecumenical creeds which contain claims predominantly accepted by followers of the Christian faith. These professions state that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary, was crucified, buried, and resurrected from the dead in order to grant eternal life to those who believe in him and trust him for the remission of their sins. They further maintain that Jesus bodily ascended into heaven where he rules and reigns with God the Father. Most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge all humans, living and dead, and grant eternal life to his followers. He is considered the model of a virtuous life, and both the revealer and physical incarnation of God. Christianity has played a pivotal role in shaping of the worlds socio-cultural, political and economic scenario, especially the Western civilization. In words of a renowned American scholar Sam Pascoe, Christianity started out in Palestine as a fellowship; it moved to Greece and became a philosophy; it moved to Italy and became an institution; it moved to Europe and became a culture; it came to America and became an enterprise. The Doctrine of Trinity Exploring the Doctrine of Trinity The Christian Doctrine of the Trinity defines God as three divine persons, the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. The three persons are distinct yet coexist in unity, and are co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial. According to this doctrine, there is only one God in three persons. Each of them is said to be without beginning having existed for eternity. Each is said to be Almighty, neither greater nor lesser than the others. Each is said to be a complete God in every sense of the word which includes Gods attributes and all are equal in time, position, power and knowledge. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God. According this Doctrine, though distinct from one another, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. In other words, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God. The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being un-begotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three persons are each eternal and omnipotent. While distinct in their relations with one another, they are one in all else. This ancient diagram explains the Trinity quite well. According to researchers, the word Trinity is not mentioned anywhere in the Holy Scripture, but used by the ancient Christian theologians to express the doctrine of the unity of God as subsisting in three distinct Persons. Some historians are of the view that the English word Trinity is derived from the Greek word trias, meaning a set of three or the number three and its first recorded use in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about 170 AD. However, some researchers argue that the word Trinity came from the Latin word Trinitas, meaning the number three, a triad, and was first used by a Latin theologian Tertullian in 220 AD to express this doctrine. Development of Trinity into a Christian Doctrine Up until the end of the second century at least, most of the Christians were united in one basic belief; i.e. they all believed in the supremacy of the God Father. They all regarded God the Father Almighty as alone supreme, immutable, ineffable and without beginning. However, with the passing of those second century religious theologians and leaders, the Church found itself slipping slowly but inexorably toward trinity. Most of the researchers are of the view that the origin of the trinity doctrine is linked to a controversy, often known as the Arian controversy, that occurred in the city of Alexandria in the early part of the fourth century. A certain Alexander was bishop of Alexandria, Egypt who attempted to explain the unity of the Holy Trinity that whether the Son of God, is of the same substance, or only of like substance, with the Father. Alexander professed that The Son is immutable and unchangeable, all-sufficient and perfect, like the Father, differing only in this one respect that the Father is un-begotten and the Son was begotten. In explaining how the Son was begotten, Alexander quoted Jesus saying that He proceeded from the Father. Arius, who was a presbyter in charge of a parish church in the same city, dissented from the views set forth by Alexander. This disagreement reached the level of confrontation between Bishop Alexander of Alexandria and his presbyter Arius. So at a synod held at Alexandria in 321 C.E., in which Arius was deposed and excommunicated. However, Arius still had much support outside Egypt. Many of the important bishops theologically agree with Arius: Jesus Christ is not God. The sustained controversy caused unrest in the whole Roman Empire and Constantine the Great, in order to resolve the issue invited all bishops of the Christian Church (around 300 at that time) to Nicaea (which is now in modern Turkey) in May 325 C.E. Consequently, the creed of Nicaea was signed by 218 bishops who endorsed the Son as co-equal to God. However, the controversy over the nature of Jesus continued for next more than sixty years and gradually involved every conceivable authority; general councils, Popes, Emperors, bishops alone or in parties, and the faithful at large. A second ecumenical council met in Constantinople in the year 381 CE. This Council gave the finishing touch to the doctrine of three persons in one God stating that Jesus and God were co-equal, co-eternal and the deity of the Holy Spirit. From that time the Roman Emperors resolved and proclaimed they would punish all Christians who would not believe in and worship three persons in one God. Thus, the doctrine of the Trinity came to be formally established as the basic foundation of Christian faith for the next fifteen centuries. Subsequently, the doctrine of the veneration of Mary as the mother of God and bearer of God was also formulated at the Second Council of Constantinople (553 C.E.) and the title of Eternal Virgin was added. In the prayers and hymns of the Orthodox Church the name of the mother of God is invoked as often as in the name of Christ and the Holy Trinityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. In the Roman Catholic doctrine, Mary, the mother of God, was identified with the figure of the divine Wisdom. The process of deifying the mother of God went a step further here, in that Mary is treated like a divine hypostasis (substance), the figure of heavenly Wisdom. All through this period of development there had been protests made by those who wished to preserve the truth of the Gospel from the innovations; but they were gradually overborne, until at length, when the innovators were strong enough, they called other Christians Heretics, and persecuted them. Factors that Influenced the Doctrine of Trinity According to most of the researchers the prime factor that influenced the doctrine of Trinity to formulate into a fundamental belief of Christianity has been its connections with the paganism. Throughout the ancient world, as far back as Babylon, it was common for pagans to worship triad gods. This practice was also prevalent before, during and after Christ in Egypt (Horus, Osiris Isis), India (Siva, Brahma Vishnu), and Babylon (Ishtar, Sin Shamash). With the spread of Christianity especially the Paulines ministry during the first two centuries CE, most of the pagans in the Mediterranean basin converted to Christianity. They brought with them their centuries old socio-cultural traditions and religious beliefs. After the death of the Apostles, such pagan beliefs began to creep in Christianity. One may think that Paganism was dominated by Christianity, but it is perhaps more accurate to say that Christianity adapted it. Even the fact that Christians worship on Sunday was the adoptio n of a Pagan festival, because the Jews used to worship on Saturday. Some researchers are also of the view that one of the factor behind formulation of doctrine of Trinity as Christians fundamental faith had been the personal interest of the Roman emperors to wield maximum powers over masses by exploiting religion through the use of Church as a tool. It was in this context that the Constantine the Great, after coming into power in 312 CE, ended the persecution of the Christians and the suppression of the early Church which were continuing since the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Through conversion to Christianity special favors were offered to the people in the form of political, military and social gains. As a result, thousands of non-Christians joined the Church and enabled Constantine to exercise great power over the Church affairs. Constantines involvement in religious affairs was to such an extent that he himself presided over the proceedings of the Council of Nicaea and exercised his political power to bring to bear the bishops to accept his theo logical position. The Encyclopedia Britannica summarizes the proceedings of the Council of Niacea as follows: The Council of Niacea met on May 20, 325. Constantine himself presiding, actively guiding the discussion, and personally proposed (no doubt on Ossius prompting) the crucial formula expressing the relation of Christ to God in the creed issued by the council, of one substance with the Father. Over-awed by the emperor, the bishops, with two exceptions only, signed the creed, many of them against their inclination. Justifications by the Trinitarians about the Doctrine of Trinity The people who support the Doctrine of Trinity, commonly known as the Trinitarians, justify it on the basis that some verses in the Holy Bible, of which a few mentioned below, have specific reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit as distinct entities in a single narrative. As soon as Jesus Christ was baptized, he went up out of the water. At that moment heaven was opened, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and landing on him. And a voice from heaven said, This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased. The angel answered and said to her, The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; and for that reason the holy Child shall be called the Son of God. How much more, then, will the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself unblemished to God, cleanse our consciences from acts that lead to death, so that we may serve the living God! The Trinitarians interpret these verses as support for the doctrine of Trinity, because these verses speak of distinct entities mentioned by name in a single nerative. They argue, though the New Testament does not use the word ÃŽÂ ¤Ãƒ Ã‚ ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ (Trinity) nor explicitly teach it, yet it provides the referencing material upon which the doctrine of the Trinity could be formulated. In addition, the Old Testament has also been interpreted as foreshadowing the Trinity, by referring to Gods word, his spirit, and Wisdom, as well as narratives such as the appearance of the three men to Abraham, which the Trinitarians view as support of a Trinity. Rejection of Doctrine of Trinity by the Non-Trinitarians Many groups in Christianity, commonly known as non-Trinitarians, do not believe in the Doctrine of Trinity or the way the God is described in the Trinity and His relation with Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. Non-Trinitarian groups also differ from one another in their views about the nature of Jesus Christ, depicting him variously as a divine being second only to God the Father, as God but not eternally God, as Son of God but inferior to the Father (versus co-equal), as a prophet, or simply as a holy man. The non-Trinitarians reject the Doctrine of Trinity on the basis that the expression God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit were not known or advocated by Jesus or the early Christians. They argue that the Apostolic Fathers and those of the succeeding generations up to the last quarter of the 4th century CE never have thought of a triune God. They believed in One Omnificent, Omnipotent, Omniscient and Transcendent Creator Who alone is to be worshipped. Some Christian history researchers and scholars also dispute the authenticity of the Trinity and argue that the doctrine is the result of later theological interpretations of Christs nature and function. In their view, the doctrine of the Trinity was coined by the Christians about three hundred years after Jesus. The four Canonical Gospels, written between 70 and 115 CE, contain no reference to the Trinity. Even Saint Paul, who imported many foreign ideas into Christianity, knew nothing of the Triune God. The New Catholic Encyclopedia admits that the doctrine of the Trinity was unknown to the early Christians and that it was formulated in the last quarter of the 4th century. At first the Christian faith was not Trinitarian . . . It was not so in the apostolic and sub-apostolic ages, as reflected in the New Testament and other early Christian writings. The early Christians, however, did not at first think of applying the (Trinity) idea to their own faith. They paid their devotions to God the Father and to Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and they recognized the Holy Spirit; but there was no thought of these three being an actual Trinity, co-equal and united in One. Denouncement of Doctrine of Trinity by the Holy Quran Islams holy book the Quran denounces the concept of Trinity as an over-reverence by Christians of Gods Word, the prophet and Messiah Jesus Christ son of the Virgin Mary. The Quran declares Jesus as one of the most important and respected prophets and Messengers of God, primarily sent to prevent the Jews from changing the Torah, and to refresh and reaffirm his original message as revealed to Moses and earlier prophets. The Quran reveals that the creation of Jesus is framed similar to the creation of Adam out of dust, but with Jesus birth meaning his creation excludes male human intervention rather than creation completely without human participation. According to Quran teachings belief in Jesus as a prophet, as well as belief in the original Gospel and Torah and belief in Jesus virgin birth are core criterion of being a Muslim and Quranic criterion for salvation in the hereafter along with belief in the Prophet Muhammad and all the prior prophets. In short, in Quran the God is seen as being both perfect and indivisible. He can therefore have no peer or equal. Jesus, being Gods creation, can never be considered to be equal with God or a part of God. So, any believe in the concept of Trinity is considered as blasphemy in Islam. Anthropological Perspective about the Doctrine of Trinity In the preceding paragraphs I have tried to explore the Christians Doctrine of Trinity from different historians and researchers point of view. The study confirmed that this doctrine had no roots in the teachings of Jesus Christ, his Apostles or the early Christian theologians. It was gradually evolved and formulated after at least three hundred years of Christ resurrection. No doubt, this doctrine has been in hot discussion in the Christian world for centuries and has retained the central most space in Christian theology. Though, tons of literature has been written down to analyse this Trinitarian doctrine, but its understanding remains as bewildering as ever before. Now, in order to comprehend this doctrine from anthropological perspective I will try to deconstruct it by going through its contents and by discourse analyses while applying Michael Foucaults theory on knowledge is power. In order to do that I will apply his structural theory to deconstruct this doctrine as power is employed to analyse knowledge, i.e. the concept of discursive formations. Foucault has a unique lens to see the world, societies, and its different institutions, and to use his own perspective about the knowledge and power. His philosophical theories addressed what power is and how it works, the manner in which it controls knowledge and vice versa, and how it is used as a form of social control. His first argument is that all relationships are the relationships of power which are diffused in the fabric of society ontologically, and its intrinsic urge to control others, everyone, and everything. He argues that in the human cultural history irrespective of time and space as a major rule human wants to control human by nature. Foucault divides all human history in three episteme; pre-historic, religious and scientific episteme respectively. He describes religion as a tool to control people. I n his view, knowledge such as scriptures, symbols, myths and rituals play a pivotal role to prove legitimacy of any religion. Knowledge is information and skills acquired through experience and education. Foucault describes four types of contesting knowledge that exist at parallel in a society; i.e. dominant, subordinate, marginalized and muted knowledge. According to Foucault, knowledge as power is used very carefully and politically by the knowledge creators to control human mind. Dominant knowledge creators are the drivers of the society as an elite class in the Marxist paradigm. Dominant knowledge producers create knowledge as discourse which elect some people, and give them the gaze to judge masses in the society, which means society is panoptical and individuals are under constant surveillance that they are doing their jobs properly. If some deviate from their role then the system declare them unfit and put them into asylum. In Foucaults perspective the society is held up in illusion and false consciousness. He annihilates all beliefs, norms, traditions and rules as discourse created by the dominant knowledge producers which are overwhelmingly imposed on the society. He proclaims that no knowledge is authentic, all are socially constructed. In line with many other postmodernists, Foucault argues that the reason to contest between knowledge is that there is a gap between the surface knowledge and living knowledge. Through discourse analysis, power structures may be uncovered and questioned by way of analyzing the corresponding fields of knowledge through which they are legitimized. This is one of the ways that Foucaults work is linked to critical theory. The corollary of the concepts of Foucault is ruling under the rubric of knowledge as power to dominate the thoughts of society. Now applying Foucaults theory on to the Doctrine of Trinity, we would evaluate its legitimacy as divine revelation or socially constructed theology. As we explored earlier, the doctrine of Trinity came into existence through a gradual evolution that took over two centuries. The Christianity that started its career as a pure monotheistic religion drifted slowly but inexorably toward polytheistic beliefs under the influence of pagan traditions and the dominant class of that time, i.e. the Roman emperors. The earlier Christian theologians and council of Bishops like Gnostic (50 CE), Justin Martyr (150 CE), Theophilus (169 CE), Irenaeus (177 CE), Tertullian (192 CE), Clement (215 CE), Hippolytus (220 CE), Origen (230 CE), Sibellius (255 CE), Arius (320 CE), Council of Nicaea (325 CE), Council of Constantinople (381 CE), Council of Chalcedon (451 CE) played their role in the formulation of doctrine of Trinity by continuously defining and re-defining the nature of God, Jesus Christ, and th e Holy Spirit and their relations to one another. Throughout this process the dominant class of that time used its political muscles to keep the doctrine in line with the state mechanism. In short, the knowledge created by the religious theologians and scholars in collaboration with the ruling class was employed to wield maximum power, and that power was used to control the masses. Now we will exchange the lens of Michael Foucault with other great philosophers of nineteenth and twentieth centuries in order to analyze this doctrine in their own conceptions and perceptions. One of the great figure the social philosopher and the most influential political atheist Karl Marx has a very unique materialistic world view to see the processes in the society. He proclaims a conflict view of religion as the sigh of the oppressed creature, the illusory happiness of men, the reflex of real world, the opium of

The Third Bank of the River Essay -- Third Bank of the River

The Third Bank of the River      Ã‚  Ã‚   Confusion, embarrassment, and guilt can all be found throughout Joà £o Guimarà £es Rosa's short story "The Third Bank of the River." Rosa forces the reader to analyze his words and delve deeply into the hidden meanings behind them. Upon first glance, a story unfolds of a father who seemingly abandons his family and chooses to live out the remainder of his life rowing a small boat back and forth along a river. There are circumstances leading up to this behavior, which new insight to the author's psychological meaning.    The story develops through the narration of one of the children in the family. His recollection of the days which lead to his father's absence brings a clear image of the family structure he knew when he was a child. The narrator describes his father as "dutiful, orderly," and "straightforward"(200). He is quick to point out, however, who has the final say in the household: "It was mother, not father, who ruled the house" (200). When the father decides to order a boat, made specifically for him, the mother "carriedon plenty about it" (200). When the boat arrives, the father says goodbye to all, and the children expect their mother to carry on about this, but her reaction is mixed. The effectiveness of her orders to her husband, "If you go away, stay away. Don't ever come back," is weakened as she bites her lip and turns very pale. Her authority is reduced further when her son follows his father to the river, feeling "bold and exhilarated" because he risks the wrath of his mother and wins (200). The child feels so vindicated by his rebellious actions that he asks to accompany his father in the boat. However, his father gestures to him to return, and r... ...the son, the father is nothing, and without the father, the son is nothing.    A riverbank can be found where two worlds, earth and water, connect. Any river will have two banks, one on either side of the water. Rosa has created a character who has found a "third bank on the river," a third way to separate land from the sea. This bank belongs to an entirely different world. Rosa has found a way for the father to exist, yet not exist, within the family. He is connected to his family and weighs heavily upon their minds even though he is a part of an entirely different world. He has discovered this link by establishing a "third bank of the river."    Work Cited Rosa, Joà £o Gumarà £es. "The Third Bank of the River." Trans. William Grossman. Angles of Vision. Ed. Arthur W. Biddle and Toby Fulwiler.   New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992. 200-203.

What Should Chateau Margaux Do?

What Should Chateau Margaux Do? Chateau Margaux, in Bordeaux region, has been the most splendid wines for many years with excellent reputation. Being the designated wine in the French State Banquet, the reputation is universal. There is limited room for the improvement of the brand images. With the rapid growth in the worldwide wine market, it is time for Chateau Margaux penetrating into it. China, one of the markets with rapid growth in economy, will be one of the best options. With the large population and growth in economy, the China wine market has expanded rapidly, especially for the wine in Bordeaux region. From the statistic from the China Wine Information Website, the import of wine from Bordeaux region has increased 82% in 2007 and soared 21 times in 8 years time. There is really a great opportunity for Chateau Margaux entering this huge potential market. In order to enter the China wine market, the top priority is to promote the brand and products. After cultivating in China market for years, French wines has become the pronoun of romance and elegance, and even the symbol of luxury. It is suggested that Chateau Margaux should set up a luxury store with wine cellar in China. The main purpose of the setting up is not selling wines in the stores, but increasing the publicity of the brand and products by holding different kinds of function. Since the first step is to let people know about Chateau Margaux, it is a good idea for Chateau Margaux inviting celebrities and wine critics to the open ceremony of the luxury store. Press conference can also be held to introduce Chateau Margaux to the public. This will be the stepping stone for Chateau Margaux entering the China market. As new to the China market, it is essential for Chateau Margaux taking part in some exhibitions and also wine tasting events, like the 2008China International Wine & Liquor Expo. In participating in the 2008China International Wine & Liquor Expo, which is the biggest wine professional exhibition in China, Chateau Margaux can let consumers know more about the products and even can take the benefits from the upcoming 2008 Beijing Olympic Game. However, during all the promoting functions, it is important to keep the image, â€Å"Chateau Margaux is a grand and luxury product† After promoting the brand and products to the public, Chateau Margaux should react quickly to suit with the China wine market. As most of the potential consumers in China are new to the high-end wine, they would like to know more information about the particular wine or even particular vintage, which is not included in the label of Chateau Margaux. A booklet introducing different Chateau Margaux wines will be published to let consumers have more in-depth information. Besides, it is possible for Chateau Margaux co-operating with China food enterprises since wine paired with food will be one of the ways to promote the products. Since the wine market in the rising economies countries like China increased so quickly, getting market shares in these places as quick as possible will promote the future growth of Chateau Margaux to the worldwide wine market. (521 words)

Free Essays on The Outsider

THE CHARACTERS Â · MEURSAULT Meursault, the main character and the narrator of the story, is a 30-year-old shipping clerk who lives an ordinary day-to-day existence. We see him as a son (at his mother's funeral); as a friend; as a solitary creature pursuing simple experiences from moment to moment; and as a prisoner, first on trial, then awaiting execution. Physical sensations of sun and wind and physical activities such as swimming or running mean a great deal to him. Larger experiences in his life- the death of his mother, a chance for marriage, and a change in job- mean relatively little. We learn almost nothing about his past, though he is a curiously candid person, speaking of experiences in the present that most of us, if we felt them, might keep silent about. He has a detached attitude toward other people. This annoys most people, but some are attracted to him because of his silence and his habit of not offering judgments. The central event in his life, at least as far as it influences others, is killing an Arab. His most intense experience, however, is his attack on a chaplain while in prison. Many readers see Meursault as a hero and as a martyr for the truth. He refuses to disguise his feelings and by doing so threatens society. He accepts death for the sake of truth rather than play society's games and conform to what he sees as society's illusions, lies, and hypocrisies. At the same time, he doesn't judge other people but attempts to understand why they act and say the things they do. Some readers note, however, that Meursault occasionally compromises his loyalty to the truth, for example, by writing a letter to Raymond Sintes's girlfriend. He also lies to the police to win Raymond's release after he has beaten the girl. Other readers see Meursault's feelings as callous, not heroic. For instance, when Raymond is beating an Arab girl, Meursault refuses to send for the police because he dislikes them. His feelings take ... Free Essays on The Outsider Free Essays on The Outsider THE CHARACTERS Â · MEURSAULT Meursault, the main character and the narrator of the story, is a 30-year-old shipping clerk who lives an ordinary day-to-day existence. We see him as a son (at his mother's funeral); as a friend; as a solitary creature pursuing simple experiences from moment to moment; and as a prisoner, first on trial, then awaiting execution. Physical sensations of sun and wind and physical activities such as swimming or running mean a great deal to him. Larger experiences in his life- the death of his mother, a chance for marriage, and a change in job- mean relatively little. We learn almost nothing about his past, though he is a curiously candid person, speaking of experiences in the present that most of us, if we felt them, might keep silent about. He has a detached attitude toward other people. This annoys most people, but some are attracted to him because of his silence and his habit of not offering judgments. The central event in his life, at least as far as it influences others, is killing an Arab. His most intense experience, however, is his attack on a chaplain while in prison. Many readers see Meursault as a hero and as a martyr for the truth. He refuses to disguise his feelings and by doing so threatens society. He accepts death for the sake of truth rather than play society's games and conform to what he sees as society's illusions, lies, and hypocrisies. At the same time, he doesn't judge other people but attempts to understand why they act and say the things they do. Some readers note, however, that Meursault occasionally compromises his loyalty to the truth, for example, by writing a letter to Raymond Sintes's girlfriend. He also lies to the police to win Raymond's release after he has beaten the girl. Other readers see Meursault's feelings as callous, not heroic. For instance, when Raymond is beating an Arab girl, Meursault refuses to send for the police because he dislikes them. His feelings take ...

International Graduate School Exhibit Shows

International Graduate School Exhibit Shows Introduction One of the most popular marketing communications campaigns of promoting a masters degree program to potential students has been through the use of educational exhibits that are done in cooperation with the British Council.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International Graduate School Exhibit Shows specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The British Council (not to be confused as a government entity) is an international education marketing service that enables schools within the UK (and other countries as well) to connect with potential students around the world. This is done through education exhibits wherein various schools have booths that showcase what programs potential students can go for, what amenities can they expect from their respective universities and whether one particular type of program is better than another. Thus, from the perspective of students, the British Council marketing campaign can be c onsidered as one of the best methods of learning what particular program would be best for them. However, despite the advantages showcase by this particular method of direct promotion, it must be questioned whether such a marketing initiative is effective at all given that several of the locations that the British council has campaigned in have students that would not be able to afford the high tuition fees associated with learning within a U.K. based school. International Advertising International advertising initiatives such as those done by the British Council in countries such as Indonesia, Ghana and the Philippines all attempt to target new markets within foreign countries due to flat growth in their main consumer markets (i.e. the U.S.) They do this by utilizing print ads and television advertisements in order to create an association between education and success (i.e. if a person learns at a particular university in the UK they will become wealthy) which results in a far gre ater degree of students applying.Advertising Looking for essay on advertising? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this case, this is a form of informative advertising wherein companies seek to create greater awareness for their products/services. The research methodology behind this form of advertising is basically one which involves creating an association between a new product and a given benefit. For example, advertising campaigns tend to associate the use of some beauty creams as a means of getting a more â€Å"youthful† look. Targeting the Correct Market Segment What must be understood is that the ultimate goal of advertising is to be able target products to the consumers who want to buy them. As such, in order to create sales for a company what is needed is to examine the current market and customers and determine why a product or service is not selling and revise strategies accordingly in order to targe t the correct market segment. Companies in such situations can approach their relationships with consumers through the use of a systematic, rigorous process of segmentation, targeting and positioning which should result in the company being able to determine which consumer segment to approach and how to properly position itself to create sales and maximize profit (Shankar 1999). In the case of many of today’s advertising agencies, this comes in the form of traditional advertising strategies (i.e. print ads, television commercials or sponsorships) or non traditional methods of advertising which take the form of online ads and viral video campaigns which are becoming increasingly popular as a means of reaching millions of people with a relatively small budget. When examining the case of the British Council campaign in promoting UK based educational institutions, it must be questioned whether their strategy of expansion in various Asian markets is a smart one given the limited f unding of local populations.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International Graduate School Exhibit Shows specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, when examining the locations where the British Council has been holding its educational fairs, it can be seen that they have events occurring within Indonesia, the Philippines, Nigeria, Ghana and Mauritius. While it is not the intent of this paper to disparage the potential such locations have for producing high quality students, the fact remains that these locations have income levels that are far below the UK norm. Even though there would be willing students, it is unlikely that they would even be able to afford the tuition even if significant levels of financial assistance were provided. As such, this calls into question the viability of the target market approach that the British Council educational institution promotion strategy is employing. One aspect to take i nto consideration when it comes to this type of advertising is the fact that at times certain products become a tough sell. In such cases what is needed is to frame an offer to get rid of the objection so as to entice consumers to purchase the product once more despite the market environment dictating the complete opposite type of buying behavior. This process in effect creates a buying situation where the consumer observes the perks of buying a particular product and neglects to take into account the possible negative implications of the sale. Such a situation would normally be possible in market segments that have the excess liquidity to actually buy a product yet are unable to do so. However, within the context of the British Council campaign, despite the efforts of the organization to promote the product (i.e. education in the UK) the fact remains that relatively few people within some of the countries that the campaign advertises in actually have students that can afford the pr oduct they are offering.Advertising Looking for essay on advertising? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One strategy that is often utilized in advertising is the use of discounts when selling particular products such as various services (i.e. advertising).What you have to understand is that people love a bargain and, as such, it is at times necessary to lower prices in order to have some form of income rather than none at all (Grà ¸nhaug, Kvitastein Grà ¸nmo 1991). Such a tactic contributes significantly towards the agency’s advertising strategy since this enables consumers to perceive that they are getting their money’s worth when it comes to purchasing the company’s services. As such, if the British Council were to offer partial scholarships to lower the cost of education for particular educational institutions, then it may be possible to actually create a market situation where there would be actual buyers instead of mere onlookers. Present Day Advertising Strategies using the Internet One of the methods that the British Council has utilized in order to prom ote its various education fairs has been through the use of the internet. The sheer proliferation of social media platforms such as blogs, wikis and online forums has created an unprecedented opportunity for advertising services like the British Council to take advantage of this new social trend in order to promote particular products and services via online social platforms. Nearly 22% of all online activity within the U.S. alone is spent on social networking websites and as such is indicative of the consumer market share that social media platforms could potentially provide to the company should it utilize such an advertising tool. Furthermore it has been proven that using social media programs such as viral advertising initiatives results in a certain degree of hype being generated for a particular product or service yet only cost a fraction of a standard advertising campaign. Thus from a cost-benefit standpoint the utilization of social media platforms as advertising tools is no t only advantageous for an advertising agency in terms of brand promotion and gaining a certain degree of market penetration into potentially untapped consumer segments but it can do so at a relatively low cost and as such presents numerous potential avenues of approach by which an agency can generate consumer awareness of its clients products. One way in which the British council has been utilizing social media in advertising its various university fairs was to create a Facebook fan page for the company in order to help better connect itself with its current customer base. What must be understood is that by creating a fan page this allows subscribed Facebook fans to receive updates from the company in the form of fair launch dates, overall service availability, performance and other factors that can contribute to its sale. In fact a fan page creates a human face for the company in that by posting daily news regarding the particular industry the company is in. This helps consumers t o better understand the British council and thus create a greater degree of awareness for the various fairs which translates into a higher likelihood of service patronage. It is also interesting to note that through the fan page the company can also better facilitate particular promotions such as discounts, special contests and other such methods of promotional advertising that are meant to entice greater public interest. Various companies ranging from the alcoholic beverage maker Jack Daniels to the computer manufacturer Asus have Facebook fan pages and this has enabled them to create a larger consumer fan base since instead of the company merely being a nameless entity that consumers buy products or services from, it is subsequently transformed into an entity with particular views, positions on current events and even a sense of humor when it comes to posting its daily wall posts Effective Use of Advertising While advertising is an effective means for a UK based university to comm unicate with its potential students and deliver its intended message, this does not mean that all types of advertising are suitable for delivering a message for a particular type of company or a specific kind of product (Proctor, Proctor, Papasolomou-Doukakis 2002). Since most students can be considered as being rational consumers they would of course tend to patronize a product that they believe is within their price range, is of exceptional quality and has a higher degree of total utility compared to similar products within the market. This would result in students having a greater likelihood of going for a particular university that they saw through informative advertising since for them it fulfills all the prerequisites needed for effective consumption. However, it should be noted that within the context of college education promotions, persuasive advertising is utilized as a means of changing a consumers mind by presenting a need that did not previously exist. For example, whe n going to these fairs people initially have no idea that they need to take up a masters degree, however, after the various presentations given by schools and by the British Council itself, this creates the desire for a masters degree due to the supposed advantages of having one. This can come in the form of showing potential career advantages that come with a master’s degree, how obtaining one would result in more opportunities in the future and lastly how it would actually be fun to take up advanced education in another country. Conclusion Based on the examination of the British Council campaign that was examined, it can be seen that advertising is a way in which a company generates interest in a particular product line in order to encourage greater sales within specific markets. It also acts as a method to generate a certain degree of â€Å"hype† and product patronage for the products/services that the company is offering (Hirschman Thompson 1997). In some product markets, certain types of consumer goods and services require an extra push so to speak when trying to conduct normal business operations. In such instances, if customers are not buying, more often than not, it is an indication that a company is targeting the wrong people (Hirschman Thompson 1997). Taking this into consideration, it can be assumed that in cases where a hard to sell product is involved it is not that the company is experiencing a situation where the consumer does not want to be a customer but rather the company is merely targeting the wrong consumer market. It is in such instances that techniques such as informative, reassuring and persuasive advertising are utilized in order to gain the patronage of the market segment that the company is aiming for. Based on the various examples that have been presented, it can be seen that despite various forms of consumable media in the form of print ads, billboards, commercials, online advertising campaigns and a plethora of oth er types of advertising initiatives being present in the world today, not all techniques utilized in their creation are applicable to particular companies, products or services. At times it requires a specific type of advertising initiative whether informative, persuasive or reassuring in order to reach the ultimate goal of advertising which is to be able target products/services to the consumers who want to buy them and retain their patronage for as long as possible. Reference List Grà ¸nhaug, K, Kvitastein, O, Grà ¸nmo, S 1991, Factors moderating advertising effectiveness as reflected in 333 tested advertisements, Journal Of Advertising Research, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 42-50, Hirschman, E, Thompson, C 1997, Why Media Matter: Toward a Richer Understanding of Consumers Relationships with Advertising and Mass Media, Journal Of Advertising, vol.26, no.1, pp. 43-60 Proctor, S, Proctor, T, Papasolomou-Doukakis, I 2002, A post-modern perspective on advertisements and their analysis, Jo urnal Of Marketing Communications, vol.8, no. 1, pp. 31-44 Shankar, A 1999, Advertisings imbroglio, Journal Of Marketing Communications, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-15

EQUITY AND TRUST (LAW) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

EQUITY AND TRUST (LAW) - Case Study Example The law requires that a trustee exercises the same degree of diligence that a man of ordinary prudence would exercise in the management of his affairs. In this report we shall examine the role of the trustees and the standard care he is required to take in some specific instances and also the reasons for the difference in the standards of care in such instances in the light of established case laws and the provisions of the Trustee Act 2000. " As a general rule, a trustee sufficiently discharges his duty if he takes, in managing he trust affairs, all those precautions which an ordinary prudent man of business would take in managing similar affairs of his own"- this was the court ruling in the appeal case of Speight v. Gaunt as early as in the year 1883. According to this settled law the standard care that a trustee is expected to take is limited to the extent that the trustee takes all precautions in administering the trust assets by taking such care which an ordinary prudent man of business would be taking in his own case. The trustee is exonerated from his liability so long as he proves that he has strictly followed the covenants of the trust deed and there is no willful deviation from the purposes for which the trust properties were put to use. The trustee is not expected to use any special skill or expertise with regard to the investment of the trust properties. As has been decided in the case of Fales v. Canada Per manent Trust Co.(1977) 2 SCR 302 "that of a man of ordinary prudence in managing his own affairs and traditionally the standard has been applied equally to professional and non-professional trustees. The standard has been of general application and objective". Hence traditionally there had been no distinction between professional and non professional trustees in the matter of deciding on the standard care to be exercised by the trustees with regard to the trust properties. This was the legal position at a time when the investment opportunities that were available for the trust properties were limited and hence there was no major problem encountered with the administration of the trust properties. However with the passage of time the possible avenues for investments had increased and this has created additional responsibilities for the trustees to consider the portfolios or assets in which they contemplate to invest the trust properties and decide whether the properties would be safe in such investments. Case of Learoyd v. Whiteley (1887) 12 App. Cas.727: "When the trustee serves both a life tenant and a remainderman beneficiary, the trustee must invest impartially and balance the preservation of the property for the remainderman with the need to produce a reasonable income for the life tenant"- this was the observation made in the case of Learoyd v. Whitely (1887) as regards the fiduciary position of the trustees. This ruling altered the degree of the standard care to be exercised by the trustees in that the responsibility of the trustee is extended to ensure that the safety of the investments is also taken into account while investing the trust property, so that the capital is not eroded. The argument of reliance by the trustee on a third person supposed to be an expert on the investments of the sort covered by the case will not exonerate the trustee from his fiduciary liability to the

Networking Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Networking - Coursework Example For example, security needs may entail authentication, encryption security levels and modes of detecting intrusion. Additionally, the costs involved in the three mediums are difficult to contrast due to the different costs involved such as- acquisition costs, installation costs and maintenance costs. For an entrepreneur who wants to establish a global satellite radio system, I would begin with using at least two GEO satellites strategically placed above the globe. This would enable the satellites to transmit signals to the radio satellite receivers. Additionally, the entrepreneur would have no interference since the satellites are placed directly above the earth and would orbit continuously. The frequency of the transmission would range from 5GHz to around 30GHz. A synchronous connection can be likened to a lift that stops every floor to allow people on and off from the ground floor to the tenth floor. The first four floors refer to the input messages, while the next six floors are responsible for producing data. The network chosen is a local LAN, which is wirelessly connected and also through coaxial cables. If additional media is required, a USB cable can be used for connecting to the network. In some instances, one may want to use an external hard drive. In such instances, the hard drive is connected either via the USB or